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Glossary of Animals
Impala
Aepyceros melampus
Description
With their shiny reddish coat and long slender legs, the graceful impala is one of the most beautiful antelope. Adult males stand about 90cm at the shoulder and have a mean mass of about 50kg. Females are smaller with a mean mass of about 40kg. Only the males have horns, which are lyrate and strongly ringed for two-thirds of their length. The impala has conspicuous oval tufts of black hair on the lower part of the hind legs which cover glandular areas in the skin. There are also distinct black bands on either side of their rump, against which the surrounding pale fawn areas stand out conspicuously.
Distribution
They occur in the central and southern parts of Kenya, in southwestern Uganda and widely throughout Tanzania. They are restricted to the extreme southern parts of Zaire and Angola, and occur widely in Zambia. They are found in the northern, northeastern and eastern sectors of Botswana, and are widely distributed in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. In Namibia, they are restricted to the extreme northwest. They are found in the northern and eastern sectors of South Africa, and in the Kruger National Park, the impala is by far the most abundant and widespread antelope species.
Habitat
Impala are almost always associated with woodland, preferring light open associations. They generally avoid open grassland and floodplains and are absent from mountainous areas. Cover and availability of drinking water are essential requirements, and the creation of numerous artficial waterholes in most conservation areas has allowed them to significantly increase their range of distribution. Although they prefer short grass, impala are predominantly browsers in most areas.
Habits
Impala are gregarious and are generally found in herds of between 15 and 50 animals, but larger congregations of over 100 animals are frequently encountered during the winter months. Their social organisation consists of males, which are territorial only during the breeding season, and bachelor and breeding herds. They are predominantly diurnal, but rest during the hottest parts of the day.
Breeding
The breeding season is restricted to the autumn months of April, May and June. Only one adult male accompanies each breeding herd during this time and he is constantly engaged in defending his harem from other males. Fighting between male impalas is not prolonged, but in some instances does lead to serious injury or even death. During the rut, territorial males are extremely vocal, uttering an array of noises from grunts to roars. They also create dung heaps which are scattered randomly within their territories. Females break away from the herd to give birth in isolation, but all the calves in a particular area are born within a restricted period of a few weeks after a gestation period of approximately 200 days. This mass arrival is thought to provide safety in numbers. Following birth, the young are left hidden for a day or two, after which they are seldom in close association with their mothers, except when suckling.
General
Impala are exceptionally fleet-footed and are excellent jumpers. They have acute hearing and are very alert and wary. However, their large numbers and convenient size make them an important part of the diet of all the larger predators.
Burchell’s Zebra
Equus burchelli
Description
The characteristic stripes of the zebra make them easily recognisable, and no two individuals are identical. Burchell’s zebra has distinctive greyish ‘shadow’ stripes between the black ones which other southern African species do not. It is thought that the stripes have more to do with identification amongst zebras than as a form of camouflage. Adults have a shoulder height of about 140cm and may have a mass of up to 320kg. There is no difference between stallions and mares in the southern part of their distributional range, except the males have slightly thicker necks. They invariably appear to be in prime condition with well rounded bodies and shiny coats, but it is the state of the mane that gives an indication of their health.
Distribution
Their present day distribution shows a marked shrinkage, but within recent years they have been widely reintroduced to private properties. They occur fairly widely in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique and Botswana, and are localised in Zaire, Ethiopia, Somalia and Angola. They are confined to the northern and northeastern areas of Namibia and to the low lying areas of Zimbabwe. They are found in the northern and eastern sectors of South Africa.
Habitat
Burchell’s zebra are a savanna species, favouring open areas and avoiding forests and deserts. They are dependant on water, are seldom found further than 10km from it and they frequently dig for it in dry riverbeds. Although being adaptable to changing environemnets, they have a definite choice of habitat which leads to daily and seasonal movements to areas where better grazing conditions and water supplies prevail. They are predominantly grazers, favouring short grass, but will occasionally browse and feed on herbs. The fluh of green growth after a burn is highly attractive to them, and they actively move to these areas.
Habits
The Burchell’s zebra is highly gregarious, forming aggregations of thousands of animals when conditions are suitable. Normally, however, they live in small family groups consisting of a stallion and one or more mares and their foals. Stallions rejected from the family group form bachelor associations, or they remain solitary. They are not territoirial, moving freely over large areas, and there does not appear to be any social organisation above that of family or stallion groups. They are often seen in the company of other plains game, particularly blue wildebeest.
Breeding
Foaling occurs throughout the year, but there is a definite peak in December and January, certainly in the southern part of their distributional range. There is a gestation period of between 360 and 390 days, following which a single foal is born in the vicinity of the herd. Mother and foal are closely bonded by grooming and sniffing interactions, and before the foals start grazing, they eat the fresh dung of the adults to obtain the bacteria needed for digestion. Mortality of foals is high in the first year due to predation.
General
They have an acute sense of sight, smell and hearing, which benefit the species that associate themselves with the zebra. They are continually alert for predators, particularly lion and spotted hyena, their alarm call being a characteristic ‘kwa-ha-ha’. When attacked, the herd bunches up and flees at about half their top speed of 60 to 70 km/h so that the group can keep tightly together. Zebra are dangerous prey and there are several accounts of predators being killed by a carefully placed kick.
Blue Wildebeest
Connochaetes taurinus
Description
Their humped shoulders and deep necks contrast with the more lightly built hindquarters and long slender legs, but this unusual build allows them to break into a run very easily. On the move, their plodding gait gives an impression of world weariness. Adult males stand about 150cm at the shoulder and have a mass of about 250kg. Females are smaller at 135cm and 180kg. Both sexes carry the unridged horns but those of the male are heavier.
Distribution
They occur in two main areas that are widely separated. The northern area extends from southwestern Kenya to northwestern Mozambique, and the southern area from Zambia marginally into South Africa. There is an isolated population in the Luangwa valley in Zambia.
Habitat
They are particularly associated with savanna woodland and the availability of drinking water is an essential requirement. They are grazers with a preference for feeding on areas of short, green lawn-like grassland. They are selective feeders and will move in search of fresh green grass sprouting after a burn or rain.
Habits
They are extremely gregarious and their social organisation consists of territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups. This organisation is, however, very fluid outside of the breeding season. Huge aggregations occur in areas of favourable grazing, but these aggregations have no social structure above the basic units. They are predominantly active duting the day.
Breeding
During the breeding season, which falls between April and June, males establish territories, round up herds of cows and their young and fend off rivals by means of display or horn-sparring contests. Females in oestrus are restless and mate with several males. A single calf is born after a gestation period of around 250 days, and can stand within three to five minutes of birth and run with the mother immediately thereafter. The calves stay close to their mothers and are very energetic, chasing each other with tails flying and butting each other with their heads. Young males are evicted from the herd at about two years of age.
General
They have a keen sense of hearing and smell, but although they are swift runners, they are an important part of the diet of lions. Scent is an important part of communication and tar-like secretions from glands on the forefeet and just below the eyes are used to mark territories and paths. Territorial bulls create numerous ‘rolling grounds’, and these lead to the develoment of seasonal pans.
Kudu
Tragelaphus strepisceros
Description
Colonel Stevenson-Hamilton, first warden of the Kruger National Park, described the male kudu as the ‘acme of Nature’s efforts to attain perfection of type’, and this animal certainly ranks as one of Africa’s most handsome species. The kudu is a large animal, with males standing at about 1.4m at the shoulder and weighing approximately 250kg. Females are distinctly smaller with maximum masses of up to 200kg. Only the males carry horns, which can reach lengths of over 1.8m. Other distinctive features include the white chevron-shaped mark extending from the eyes across the upper nose and the exceptionally large, pink ears.
Distribution
The kudu is one of the most resilient of the larger mammal species and is able to persist in the face of heavy hunting pressure and human settlement. They are found in many of the southern and eastern African countries, but occur widely only in Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia, Namibia, Mozambique, Botswana and Zimbabwe. It is the most widely distributed antelope in South Africa’s Kruger National Park.
Habitat
Kudu are a savanna woodland species that do not occur in desert, forest or in open grassland. They tend to be localised in semi-desert areas, being found only where there is sufficient cover. They are particularly partial to rugged broken country where they have a cover of woodland and a nearby supply of water, which is an essential habitat requirement. In arid country, however, they satisfy their moisture requiremnets by eating particular food items. Kudu almost always browse, but do graze very occasionally. They are very unselective feeders.
Habits
Although gregarious, herds are usually very small, hardly ever numbering more than a dozen. Outside of the breeding season, the adult males may remain solitary or may form small bachelor associations. At the time of the rut, adult males join up with herds in which at least one female is in oestrus. They are normally active in the early morning and evening, but become nocturnal in developed areas.
Breeding
May to August is the mating season and bulls compete for access to female herds by displays and clashing horns. Combatants are very rarely injured. After a gestation period of about 210 days, kudu calves are born in tall grass or any other sufficiently dense cover, and remain concealed for up to two months. The mothers visit their hidden offspring on a daily basis until the youngsters are strong enough to join the female herds.
General
Kudu are very secretive and spend nearly all their time hidden in thick bush. When disturbed, a kudu will usually stop and listen to assess the situation and then move away quietly or dash off after giving a loud, sharp alarm bark similar to that of a baboon. To run through thick bush, the males lay their horns on their back. They are very susceptible to diseases such as anthrax and rinderpest.
Giraffe
Giraffa camelopadalis
Description
An unmistakable animal, the giraffe is the tallest animal in the world. The average height for males is about 5m and they weigh approximately 1190kg. Females are smaller with an average height of about 4.4m and a mass of 828kg. The colour of the irregularly shaped patches which cover the entire body differs markedly between animals and tends to darken with age. The bony growths, or’horns’ prominent on the top of the head are heavier in males whose fighting tends to wear away the thick black hair covering the tip.
Distribution
The distribution of the giraffe has shrunk dramatically in fairly recent times. Today, although surviving in conservation areas in a large number of African countries, they are only widely distributed throughout Kenya and Tanzania.
Habitat
Giraffes occur in a number of savanna associations ranging from scrub to woodland, the only requirement being a sufficient range of plants to cover their seasonal nutritional demands. They are generally not associated with open plains and do not occur in desert or forest. They drink regularly where water is available, but are not dependant on it and can obtain their moisture from their food.
Giraffes are predominantly browsers and they utilise a wide range of plants. They are often seen chewing bones, and this is to gain a balanced ratio of calcium to phosphorous in the diet.
Habits
Giraffes are mostly active during the day, but they do move and feed at night as well. They only enjoy a few minutes of deep sleep a day, and they do this by bending their heads back against the body. They generally occur in mixed aggregations and are not territorial.
Breeding
The giraffe breeds throughout the year and is the only ungulate with a gestation period longer than a year (475 days). The mass at birth is about 102kg and the calves stand at a height of 1.5m. The young are born with the female standing, and the umbilical cord snaps during the fall. The calf can stand within a hour of birth, but lies out isolated for up to three weeks. Mortality in the first year is very high.
General
To cope with the problem of rapidly fluctuating blood pressure when bending over, the giraffe has a network of very small elastic blood vessels which can accommodate excess blood when the head is lowered and retains sufficient blood to feed the brain when the animal returns to its upright position. A unique system of valves that prevent backflow solves the problem of fluctuating venous pressure. When walking, the two legs on one side swing more or less in unison, which is unusual, and despite their long legs, they cannot run particularly quickly. Their sight and hearing are keen, but there is debate as to the quality of their sense of smell. Giraffe are a very important and sometimes underestimated part of the diet of lions.
Warthog
Phacochoerus aethiopicus
Description
Warthogs have been described both as ‘incarnations of hideous dreams’ and ‘the most astonishing objects that have disgraced nature’. Although certainly not glamorous aniamls, the warthog is an integral and very interesting member of the African savanna. Adult boars stand at about 70cm at the shoulder and have a mass of up to 100kg. Females stand at 60cm and have a mass of up to 70kg. The grey body is covered with coarse bristles about 40cm long. The legs are short and slender relative to the body, and characteristic features are the elongated head and distinctive facial warts. Males have two pairs of warts, females one. The canine teeth grow out sideways from the jaws as protuberant tusks and are very important as defensive weapons.
Distribution
They are widely distributed throughout western, central and eastern Africa, excluding the forests of the Congo Basin. They are also found throughout Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique and are found in the northern and eastern sectors of South Africa.
Habitat
They are particularly associated with open ground, grassland, floodplain, vleis and the heavily grazed areas around pans and waterholes. They also utilise woodland and open scrub and are extremely partial to freshly sprouting grass following a burn. Warthog avoid deserts, thick bush and riverine and mountain forests. Although water is not an essential habitat requirement, they drink regularly if it is available. Generally, they are vegetarians feeding on both annual and perennial grasses, and although they prefer short grass, they also eat sedges, herbs, shrubs and wild fruit. They root for underground rhizomes by kneeling on the front legs so as to be able to use the snout as an efficient digging tool. As a result, they develop callouses on the joints of the fore legs which are clearly visible. They also eat soil, bones and dung.
Habits
Warthogs are diurnal, lying up at night in disused antbear holes which they adjust to their own requirements. These holes are very important in the lives of warthogs, affording them protection against the sun, bad weather and predators. The adults enter these holes backwards as a protective measure. They are great mud wallowers, the mud serving as protection against flies. The warthogs’ social organisation generally consists of the family group, or sounder, consisting of an adult female and her offspring, sometimes accompanied by a boar. Bachelor and maternity groups are also found. They are prone to rubbing themselves on any convenient object.
Breeding
There are seldom serious encounters between warthog, but during the breeding season there may be aggressive displays between adult boars, the large warts below the eyes protecting their unganily faces from injury. Observations suggest that warthogs are polygamous or even promiscuous. The gestation period is between 167 and 175 days, and the litters are born in the burrows, usually during the early part of the rainy season. There is a large degree of prenatal loss of foetuses and a large number of piglets are stillborn or die shortly after birth. Furthermore, little warthogs are exceptionally sensitive to temperature fluctuations and habitat changes and as many as 50% usually do not make it past the first six months.
General
Being short-sighted and short-legged, they are quick to respond to the warning calls of other animals and the sight of a group of warthog running through the bush with their tails in the air is as distinctly African as the roar of the lion or the cry of the fish eagle. This amusing trait allows them to follow one another through long grass. They have been known to defend themselves against leopard, wild dog and cheetah, but they are no match for lions who often dig them out of their burrows amidst a cacophony of anxious squeeling.
Waterbuck
Kobus ellipsiprymnus
Description
Waterbuck are large, thickset antelope, the males standing at about 1.7m at the shoulder and weighing up to 270kg. The females are smaller and lighter. The colour of the upper body varies from a dark brownish-grey to a greyish brown, grizzled with white and grey hairs. Only the males have the impressive backward-curving horns. They have coarse shaggy coats and a characteristic white ring on their rump. They are endowed with numerous glands over their body which produce a musky smell which taints the meat and is said to have a waterproofing and insect-repelling function.
Distribution
They are restricted to the eastern side of the continent and are found locally in Somalia, Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Habitat
As their name suggests, they are usually associated with water and although they are indeed often found near rivers and other smaller drainage lines, they are also found in stoney, rocky areas, quite often some distance from water. They are predominantly grazers, but do browse occasionally. They avoid over-utilised areas.
Habits
A gregarious species, they usually occur in small groups of between 6 and 12 individuals, although an increase in herd size has been observed during the summer months. The social organisation consists of territorial males, nursery herds and bachelor herds. Territories are held throughout the year by dominant males, and intruders are discouraged by a number of intimidatory displays. Serious fighting is commoner with waterbuck than other ungulates and can lead to the death of combatants.
Breeding
They breed throughout the year, although a peak in births has been observed in October and again in February. The gestation period is 280 days and the females leave the herd and retire to thick cover to give birth. Usually a single calf is born, but there are rare instances of twins. The calves are left to find their own hiding place in thick bush and are extremely vulnerable to predation. They remain hidden for the first three to four weeks of their life, during which time they are visited by their mothers from time to time.
General
They are good swimmers and wade readily into shallow water when drinking and are known to seek sanctuary in deeper water where pursuers, particularly hunting dogs, are reluctant to follow.
Buffalo
Syncerus caffer
Description
Buffalo are very large, ox-like animals. They stand about 140cm at the shoulder and adult males have a mass of up to 800kg, females up to 750kg. To support the large body, the legs are correspondingly heavy. The front hooves are distinctly larger than the hind and this is indicative of the extra mass they carry in the huge head and thick neck. Old adult males are black, the degree of which females never attain. Both sexes carry horns, those of old males being massive.
Distribution
They are widely distributed throughout central and eastern Africa and their range also extends into western and southern Africa. Only isolated populations occur in southern African subregion.
Habitat
Plentiful supplies of grass, shade and water are essential habitat requirements for the savanna buffalo. They avoid wide open areas and floodplains which are far from shade. Buffalo drink regularly, often twice a day, and they frequently remain in the vicinity of water when feeding. They often use the shelter of extensive reed beds to rest. Mud wallowing is an integral part of their lives and is important for thermoregulation. They graze almost exclusively, but do include a small amount of browse in their diet. They readily feed on older, taller grass which is important because it opens up stands of pasture to animals that require shorter grass. They avoid areas that have been trampled or overgrazed.
Habits
As the buffalo is sensitive to heat, most of its foraging is carried out at night, the daylight hours being used for resting and ruminating in the shade. They are extremely gregarious, occuring in herds ranging from a few individuals to several thousand. The large herds are relatively stable, the smaller herds usually being a part of the larger unit that have split off temporarily. These herds are subject to seasonal movements, the availability of water being the critical factor. Old bulls often leave the herds and live alone or in small groups.
Breeding
Cows become sexually mature at about three years old, but the majority have their first calf at five years old and one thereafter every alternate year. Only males that are 7 years or older usually mate with the females. The gestation period is from 330 to 346 days and a single calf is born usually when the herd is resting. As the calf is requires several hours to gain enough strength to follow the herd, the mother and new born calf are often temporarily left behind. Calf mortality is generally high, with as few as 20% reaching maturity.
General
Despite their impressive size, adult buffalo, particularly lone bulls, frequently fall victim to lions. Predation, however, is a lesser factor in mortality than disease and changes in climate. The buffalo has immense powers of recuperation as a species, due mainly to the high fecundity of females, and this enables them to recover from even catastrophic epidemics. Their sense of smell is good, but they have very poor eyesight and hearing.
Chacma baboon
Papio ursinus
Description
Members of the subfamily Cercopithecinae (baboon and monkey family) all have human-like shapes, but unlike man, their fore and hind limbs are nearly equal in length. Chacma baboons have well developed, long muzzles and a non-prehensive tail. They carry their tails in a characteristic posture, with the first part held upwards and the rest drooping downwards. There is a wide range in colour of individuals within troops and between geographical areas. Males, at between 27 and 44 kilograms, are markedly larger than females who weigh between 14 and 18 kilograms.
Distribution
They occur widely in the southern African subregion, avoiding only the exteremly arid zone in the southwest. They extend north only as far as Malawi.
Habitat
It is an inhabitant of both savanna, mountainous and arid areas, and occurs marginally on open grassland. The size of their home ranges is determined by water availability and access to permanent water is an essential habitat requirement. They are omnivorous but predominantly vegetarian. Their diet consists mostly of fruit, leaves, grasses, bulbs, tubers and flowers, but they also eat insects, lizards, bird’s eggs and even new-born antelope. Males sometimes eat the young of displaced or deceased males.
Habits
They are very gregarious and live in troops which may number over 100 individuals. They have an exceptionally complex dominance hierarchy that established by fighting and maintained by staring, dispalying of teeth and chasing. Large troops may contain several large, high-ranking males who share in the troop’s offensive and defensive actions and who are the most successful with regards to mating. When threatened, the subordinate animals, females and young group together protected by the dominant males, with other males on the periphery. They are often seen in association with other herbivores and sleep at night either on rocky cliffs or in tall trees.
Breeding
There is no discrete breeding season and young are born throughout the year. The gestation period is six months and lactation continues for about six to eight months. In the early stages of life there is a close bond between mother and young. When they are ready to walk, they sit on their mother’s rump and ride around jockey-fashion. The attitude of adult males towards the young varies, with some being protective and others intolerant.
General
They are very vocal animals and their distinctive bark is a characteristic sound of the African bush. Although they can be dangerous prey, their fearsome canines being formidable weapons, they are preyed upon by lions and leopards.
Lion
Panthera leo
Description
It is the largest of the African carnivores, with males weighing up to 240kg and standing 125cm at the shoulder. Females, or lionesses, are lighter and smaller. Adults are generally a uniform tawny colour, but some retain the spots that are characteristic of young lions. The backs of the ears are black and contrast sharply with the colour of the body. Adult males have a very distinctive and attractive mane of long hair on the sides and top of the face which extends down beyond the shoulders. In addition to the mane, some males have tufts of long hair on the elbows and on the chest extending to the abdomen.
Distribution
Being particularly incompatible with human settlement, the distribution of probably no other species has shrunk over historical times to the extent shown by the lion. At one time they occurred widely in Europe, over much of Asia and the continent of Africa. Today they are extinct in Europe, extremely threatened in Asia, and occur only in protected areas south of the Sahara in Africa. They are great wanderers, however, and continue to turn up in areas where they have not been seen for many years.
Habitat
These cats have a wide habitat tolerance, the only association in which they are not generally found being forest. They penetrate deep into deserts along watercourses and are common in semi-deserts. They drink regularly if water is available, especially after feeding, but they can subsist for long periods without it, obtaining their moisture requirements from their prey. The most important habitat requirement is undoubtedly a good supply of food in the form of medium and large game animals, but they are opportunists and will eat virtually any meat, including putrid carrion. They are immensley powerful and have been known to tackle young elephants and hippopotamus and have been observed killing an adult white rhino.
Habits
Lions are the only cats that are distinctly social, living and hunting in prides which may number well over 30 individuals. They occur in areas where their prey is concentrated and where cover is sometimes limited for stalking and it is therefore to their advantage to form prides and assist each other with hunting. Prides occupy home ranges which vary greatly in size depending on the availability of food and there is very often a great deal of overlap. They try and avoid encounters with other lions, relying on roaring, scent marking and patrolling to demonstrate their right to a particular area. Lionesses form the core of the pride, rarely moving out of the area in which they were born. A pride may include several adult males, but one is always dominant over the rest. Fights between rival males take place when one or a group of males attempts to take over a pride by ousting the male already in possesion and these fights are serious and can lead to injury or even death. Lions hunt predominantly at night and are expert stalkers. It has been widely stated that males take little part in the hunt, but it is almost certain that their hunting prowess has been severely underestimated. Males take precedence at a kill, followed by the females, with the cubs very often having to make do on leftover scraps.
Breeding
When a female comes into oestrus, she and a dominant male leave the pride for a period of about two days to mate. They remain in close association during this period and copulate for up to a minute every 15 minutes or so. The majority of matings do not result in pregnancy. When about to give birth, after a gestation period of about 110 days, the female leaves the pride and returns only when the cubs are four to eight weeks old. Normally about three young are born per female, but mortality is high due to disease, starvation and violent death at the hands of hyeanas and rival male lions. When pride males are displaced by other stronger males, the new males kill the cubs of their predecessors and this stimulates the females to come into oestrus.
General
Man is the only significant enemy of the lion, but this has been sufficient to drive them from most of their former range. They are vulnerable to injury through hunting and fighting and when hurt or too old to hunt effectively, they may become man-eaters. Man-eating, however, is by no means the exclusive domain of old or crippled animals. Between 1932 and 1947 in the Njombe district of Tanzania, a man-eating pride killed over 2000 people and the notorious Tsavo lions killed 28 people over a period of nine months before they were finally shot over a bait. Lions can run at 58 km/h, which is too slow to catch most antelope, and stalking is therefore a very important part of their hunting strategy. They kill mostly by strangling or by clamping their mouths over the prey’s muzzle. Other pride members do not wait until the victim is dead before they start feeding, and when sufficient food is available, they can eat up to 35kg at a sitting, rendering them almost immobile.
Leopard
Panthera pardus
Description
An elegant and powerfully built animal, the leopard is the largest of Africa’s spotted cats. No two leopards are alike, but in general, they tend to have a golden ground colour and black spots on the limbs, flanks, hinquarters and head, with rossettes on the remainder of the body. Melanistic leopards, or ‘black panthers’, are common in the highlands of Ethiopia and have been recorded in India, Zaire, Somalia and South Africa. Like all cats, the leopard has five digits on the front feet, four on the hind and has retractable claws. The claw of the first digit on the front feet is called a dew claw and is put to good use in holding large prey and does not mark in the spoor. They are substantially smaller than lions, with males averaging around 70kg and females 40kg.
Distribution
As a result of its stealthy and solitary lifestyle, the leopard is remarkably resilient and has a wider range of distribution than any other large felid. They occur widely throughout Africa south of the Sahara and extend through the Middle East to the Far East, northwards to Siberia and south to Sri Lanka and Malaysia.
Habitat
They are able to survive on an enormous variety of food sources and therefore have a wide habitat tolerance. They are generally associated with rocky hills, mountain ranges, forests and savanna, but also occur in semi-desert and penetrate into true desert along watercourses. They drink regularly if water is available, but are able to obtain all their moisture requirements from their prey. They prefer small to medium-sized mammals, but frequently kill the young of larger animals, including buffalo. They also eat tortoises, hares, rodents, game birds, monkeys, baboons, jackals and even insects and readily feed on putrid carrion.
Habits
Secretive, solitary and silent, the leopard is something of an enigma. They are seldom encountered , but exude an aura of immense authority when they do choose to reveal their presence. Being extremely territorial, encounters between leopards very often lead to serious injuy and even death and when more than one are seen together, it is usually a mating pair or a mother with her young. They are predominantly nocturnal, particularly in developed areas, but are active during the day in wilderness areas. When hunting, the leopard uses a silent stalk and short rush to catch its prey and kills it by suffocating it or biting it on the nape of the neck, back of the skull or throat. If the opportunity presents itself, they may kill more than is immediately required and in areas where they compete with other large predators, particularly lion and hyeana, they regularly store their kills in trees. They are exceptionally strong and have been known to hoist even young giraffe up vertical tree trunks.
Breeding
There is no permanent pair bond and associations between males and females are temporary. Breeding takes place throughout the year, but occurs predominantly during the summer months. Cubs are born in a sheltered place among rocks or in an antbear hole after a gestation period of approximately 100 days. Normally two to three cubs are born, and in the early stages of their life, the mother may move them every alternate day or so in an attempt to avoid predators such as hyeana.
The cubs start hunting with their mother when they are about 4 months old, are fully independant at 14 months and remain with their mother for up to 22 months, after which affectionate reunions may take place.
General
As leopards frequently take to stock raiding, they are often shot, poisoned or trapped, but apart from man, lions are their most dangerous enemy. Leopards are well known as man-eaters in India, but this unappealing habit is very uncommon in Africa. Interestingly, almost all man-eating leopards have been males and are invariably fit and healthy individuals.
African elephant
Loxodonta africana
Description
Being the largest terrestrial mammal an having being portrayed widely in films and books, the elephant is well known and hardly requires description. Bulls have a shoulder height of over 3m and can weigh up to over 6 tons. Females generally have a mass of about two thirds that of males. The term ‘pachyderm’ which is often applied to elephants refers to their thick skins, being 4cm deep in places. Their tails can reach a length of 1.5m, the long black hairs at the tip being much in demand for making ornaments. The flaps of the ears are very large and may reach a vertical height of nearly 2m. The characteristic ear flapping of elephants creates air currents over the numerous small blood vessels under the thin skin and is done to keep the animals cool. Both sexes carry the distinctive tusks, for which numerous elephants have been slaughtered by poachers.
Distribution
They are widely distributed throughout central, western and eastern Africa south of the Sahara, with the forest elephant inhabiting the rainforests of the Congo basin. There are isolated populations in the southern African subregion.
Habitat
They have a simple digestive system and are able to eat a wide range of plants. Consequently, they are able to utilise a wide range of habitats and occur in areas as diverse as the fringes of the Namib Desert to high rainfall areas with lush vegetation. Clean drinking water and a plentiful supply of food are an elephant’s only habitat requirements. They graze and browse and eat up to 270kg of food a day. They can be very destructive in their feeding habits, pushing over trees, pulling them up by their roots or breaking off branches. Their actions can improve habitat conditions for other species by opening up areas previously inaccessible to them, but where elephant numbers exceed food supply, damage can be extensive and they are second only to man in their capacity to alter the environment.
Habits
Elephants have a highly developed socal structure, with family units being led by the most experienced cow, or ‘matriarch’. Bulls leave the family unit at puberty, which is reached at about 12 years of age, very often being driven out by the older cows. Adult bulls only join the family units only when a female is in oestrus. Elephants can live up to 70 years, and very old bulls often live solitary lives. Family groups may join up to form large herds, generally towards the end of the dry season. They are not territorial, but have home ranges which vary in size depending on the availability of food. They are both diurnal and nocturnal, but rest under shade during the hottest hours of the day. Elephants can cover enormous distances during their wanderings, and they create well worn paths which are a feature of areas where elephants occur. They are particularly fond of wallowing and swimming, sometimes submerging completely with only the tip of their trunk showing.
Breeding
Serious fights can develop between bulls over females in oestrus and these can lead to the death of combatants. Calves are born at any time of the year after a gestation period of 22 months and weigh about 120kg. The umbilical cord snaps during the fall and the adhereing membranes are delicately removed by the mother with her trunk or foot. Juveniles are vulnerable to predators and remain close to their mothers, often walking under their bellies. Maternal care is intensive for about two years. Calves are very playful, often irritating older members of the herd.
General
Although normally peaceful, they can be aggresive and extremely dangerous, particularly when injured. Females with youngsters are particularly unpredictable and will not hesitate to attack if provoked. An elephant charge is an experience not easily forgotten and has been described as sounding like ‘an orchestra of outraged demons’.
White rhinoceros
Ceratotherium simum
Description
It is the second-largest land mammal after the elephant in terms of mass and a full-grown bull can attain a shoulder height of over 180cm and a mass of 2800kg. It can be distinguished from its cousin, the black rhino, by its larger size, the characteristic hump on the back, broad mouth and square upper lip adapted for grazing. They have a barrel-shaped body and short, thick set limbs. There are prominant folds in the thick skin on the front shoulders, on the upper part of the hind limbs and at the junction of the fore limbs and the body. They have two continually growing horns on their long heads, one long one in front and a shorter one behind. The horns are composed of a mass of tubular filaments similar to hair and are not attached to the bone of the skull.
Distribution
From the evidence of skeletal remains it appears that the square-lipped rhino once occurred throughout Africa. Indiscriminate hunting and relentless poaching almost saw the white rhino condemned to extinction, but the efforts of the Natal Parks Board in particular salvaged the survival of the species and this somewhat ungainly beast is now being widely reintroduced into areas where its distinctive three-toed spoor has been absent for many years. Present day stronholds include the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex and Mkuze, Ndumu and Itala Game Reserves in Natal, The Kruger National Park, Pilansberg National Park, Marakele National Park and Welgevonden and Lapalala Private Game Reserves, all in South Africa.
Habitat
Their four basic habitat requirements are areas of short grass, adequate water for drinking and wallowing, thick bush for cover and relatively flat terrain. Although they avoid steep slopes, they readily traverse them to feeding grounds or water. They are grazers with a preference for short grass and have been observed carefully avoiding unpalatable grasses or herbs. They spend approximately 50% of daylight hours feeding and occasionally eat soil, particularly around termitaria, in order to obtain otherwise unavaialable minerals.
Habits
They occur in small groups that contain a number of females and their offspring, subordinate males and a single dominant bull. The dominant males occupy clearly defined territories which they actively and aggresively defend against other neighbouring males. The boundaries of these territories often coincide with topographical features such as watercourses and their large middens of dung which are used to mark boundaries are a distinctive sight of the African bush. Subordinate bulls are tolerated so long as they remain submissive. Cows are not territorial and home ranges of family groups show considerable overlap. They are often seen in the company of oxpeckers, which are small birds that remove ticks from their hides and which warn them of approaching danger. They are extremely partial to mud wallowing and rubbing themselves on trees or boulders. This is done to remove external parasites.
Breeding
Territorial bulls form close associations with receptive females and stay with them for some time. One calf is born after a gestation period of about 16 months and weighs approximately 40kg. Females usually separate themselves from the group to give birth and calves are born throughout the year. The association between mother and young is very close, with cows being extremely protective. In contrast to the black rhino, calves walk in front of their mothers.
General
The white rhino is better tempered than its black relative, and although very curious, tends to move away rather than attack. Rhino horn dagger handles are highly valued in Yemen and countless numbers of this placid animal have been slaughtered in order to satisfy this trivial demand.
Spotted hyaena
Crocuta crocuta
Description
Its ungainly appearance is unmistakable. They have heavy fore quarters which slope down to relatively slender hind quarters and they have immensely powerful jaws which are reputedly the strongest of all mammals. With the exception of the head, neck and lower parts of the legs, the body is covered in spots. Females are larger than males, weighing up to 80kg and standing 80cm at the shoulder. There are four digits on each foot armed with non-retractable dog-like claws.
Distribution
They are widely ditributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, but do not occur in desert or forest. In areas where cattle and stock have replaced game, the spotted hyaena is subject to rigorous control and has therefore disapppeared from many parts of its historical range.
Habitat
It is a savanna species, favouring open plains, and is dependant on a plentiful supply of food and drinking water. They are often associated with human settlements, their presence being actively encouraged in certain areas. The Masai lay out their dead for the hyaenas to dispose of and in Ethiopia they are very often the primary means of refuse removal. They are highly renowned and effective scavengers, but they are also extremely active and accomplished predators. Their favoured prey includes all medium to large antelope, but they have even been known to tackle baby elephants and adult hippos trapped in mud pools. They kill their prey by biting chunks out of it while it runs and tearing it apart when it is brought down.
Habits
They are highly gregarious, living in clans of up to 80 individuals, the core members consisting of the dominant female and successive generations of her daughters and their offspring. There are also resident and immigrant males. There is a well established dominance hierarchy within each clan, with both females and cubs dominating the males, and once they have been accepted, immigrant males outrank resident males. Cubs inherit their mother’s rank. They are highly territorial and encounters between neighbouring clans can develop into pitched battles. On a one-to-one basis, they are capable of displacing all predators except lions from their kills, and when sufficiently outnumbered even the mighty lion gives way. They are predominantly nocturnal and are great wanderers, travelling up to 40km in a night. They are particularly fond of lying in shallow water to cool off and have even been observed diving for submerged carcasses.
Breeding
Only the highest ranking immigrant male mates with females in oestrus, and following a gestation period of about 110 days, an average of two young are born. The females use dens to raise litters, usually termitaria that have been excavated by antbears. These dens are adjusted to meet the hyaenas own requirements and the cubs excavate narrow tunnels into which only they can enter for refuge when the adults are away hunting. Spotted hyaena do not bring food back to the den and cubs start feeding on meat only at about 7 or 8 months. The dens become the focal point of clan activity, but adults seldom enter and spend the majority of their time lying outside.
General
The call of the spotted hyaena is synonomous with the African night and may be heard at distances of several kilometres. It is difficult to distinguish between sexes as the females have an erectile clitoris as large as a male’s penis and a false scrotum filled with fat, probably as a result of exposure to testosterone during a critical stage of foetal development. There are many records of hyeanas attacking humans, mostly at night when the victim is sleeping, and it usually takes the form of an opportunistic bite from whatever part they can conveniently get at.
Hippopotamus
Hippopotamus amphibius
Description
Their great size, short barrel-shaped bodies and short, stout legs make the hippo an unmistakable commodity. The skin of the hippo is of special interest in that it is virtually hairless and has no sweat glands but rather specialised skin glands that secrete a reddish fluid, hence the misconception that hippos sweat blood. This secretion is resistent to ultraviolet radiation and protects their sensitive skin from sunburn. They are the third largest terrestrial mammal after the elephant and white rhino in terms of mass and adult males can exceed 1500kg. Their tusk-like canines and incisors are formidable weapons and are frequently used against each other, crocodiles and boats.
Distribution
They occur widely throughout Africa south of the Sahara, but their distributional range has shrunk considerably in the southern African subregion. As they are amphibious, they are confined to areas with sufficient water and their distribution is therefore discontinuous and patchy. They are great wanderers and often turn up unexpectedly in areas where they are not normally found.
Habitat
An essential requirement is obviously sufficient open water in which they can totally submerge, and they are particularly fond of open stretches of water with sandbanks or gently slopeing banks which allow them to rest during the day with their backs and heads just out of the water. Provided they are undisturbed, they will use the same pool for many years. Hippos are grazers and can eat up to 130kg of grass in a sitting. They crop the grass very close and create large lawn-like stands.
Habits
They remain in the water during the day, coming out to feed only once the sun has gone down. They can remain under water for up to six minutes, either swimming or walking on the bottom, and are equiped with ears and nostrils that can be closed off when submerging. Their underwater pathways help to keep waterways open. They are gregarious, occurring in schools of about 10 to 15, but often form larger aggregations towards the end of the dry season when suitable pools are at a premium. The basic social organisation is that of a group of females and their young that are controlled by a dominant bull who has gained his position in combat with other males. Pubescent bulls are viciously driven out of the school by the dominant male, and territorial fights often prove to be fatal and almost always result in serious injuries.
Breeding
Mating takes place in the water, the female remaining submerged except for brief intervals to breathe. The gestation period is between 225 and 257 days, after which a single calf is born. A female leaves the school and finds a secluded spot in dense reeds when about to give birth, after which mother and calf remain isolated for several months. Baby hippos are able to swim within a few minutes of being born. Calves are preyed on by lions and crocodiles, but adult hippos are usually more than a match for either of these antagonists.
General
Hippos, especially females with young, can be very aggressive and it is said that they are responsible for more human deaths in Africa than any other wild mammal. Although generally associated with fresh water, they are not afraid to venture into the sea and have been sighted swimming off the coast of Tanzania and South Africa. A territorial male marks his territory by furiously wagging his short tail when defecating, splattering his dung far and wide.
Black-backed jackal
Canis mesomelas
Description
The black, bushy tail, the reddish flanks, the pointed ears and the dark saddle on the back are characteristic features of this handsome member of the dog family. They stand about 38cm at the shoulder and weigh approximately 8kg, with males being slightly larger than females. There are four digits on the hind feet and five on the front, the fifth not showing in the spoor.
Distribution
They occur in two discrete areas separated by about 900km. The northern area extends from the Gulf of Aden to southern Tanzania, the southern from southwestern Angola to the tip of the Cape peninsula. This discontinuous distribution is an artefact of climatic or geological change.
Habitat
They have a wide habitat tolerance but prefer drier areas and avoid forests. Although carrion is the major part of their diet, they also actively hunt, preying on small rodents, ground-nesting birds and even insects. Hunting is of particular importance in areas where no large carnivores occur. They are wary and cunning animals and are known to kill young sheep and goats. This has led to the implementation of strict control measures in farming areas, but poisoning campaigns invariably do far more harm than good, killing numerous birds of prey and other non-target species. They drink regularly where water is avialable, but are not dependant on it.
Habits
In wilderness areas they are active both day and night, but are strictly nocturnal elsewhere. They are solitary or occur in pairs, but large aggregations may be found around carcasses. Mating pairs form long-term bonds and are territorial, with the females chasing out intruding females and the males taking action against other males. They rest in holes in the ground, using old antbear burrows.
Breeding
The black-backed jackal is one of the few monogamous mammals and both the male and female participate in raising the young. The young are born in burrows after a gestation period of 60-70 days and there are as many as 8 pups in a litter. Food is regurgitated for the pups when they are still small and is carried back uneaten when they get older. Pups of the previous year’s litter assist the parents in rearing the new litter and these helpers greatly enhance the youngsters’chances of survival.
General
They are very vocal and their characteristic call lends an eerie feel to the African night. All their senses are acute and they are very swift, often darting in to lion kills to snatch a morsel. They are, however, sometimes preyed upon by larger carnivores, but their main enemy is undoubtedly man. It is a carrier of rabies.
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